Afghanistan....Etymology & Geography....Part:2

The name Afghānistān, Persian: افغانستان [avɣɒnestɒn],^[20] means the "Land of Afghans", originating from the word Afghan.

Origin of the name

Main article: Afghan (name)

The first part of the name "Afghan" designates the Pashtun people since ancient times, the founders and the largest ethnic group of the country.^[21] This name is mentioned in the form of "Abgan" in the 3rd century CE^[22] and as "Avagana" in the 6th century CE.

The Encyclopædia Iranica states:

From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afghān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paštō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paštūn. The equation [of] Afghan [and] Paštūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paštūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically. The term "Afghān" has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times. Under the form Avagānā, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century CE in his Brihat-samhita.^[21]

A people called "Afghans" are mentioned several times in a 10th century geography book, Hudud al-'alam. Al-Biruni referred to them in the 11th century as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains.^[23] Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan travelling scholar visiting the region in 1333, writes:

We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans.^[24]

Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah (Ferishta) explains extensively about Afghans in the 16th century. For example, he writes:

The men of Kábul and Khilj also went home; and whenever they were ques­tioned about the Musulmáns of the Kohistán (the mountains), and how matters stood there, they said, "Don't call it Kohistán, but Afghánistán; for there is nothing there but Afgháns and dis­turbances." Thus it is clear that for this reason the people of the country call their home in their own language Afghánistán, and themselves Afgháns.^[25]

Afghan soldiers of the Durrani Empire. The name "Afghaunistan" is printed on this 1847 Lithograph by James Rattray.

By the 17th century AD, it seems that some Pashtuns themselves were using the term as an ethnonym - a fact that is supported by traditional Pashto literature, for example, in the writings of the 17th-century Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak:

Pull out your sword and slay any one, that says Pashtun and Afghan are not one! Arabs know this and so do Romans: Afghans are Pashtuns, Pashtuns are Afghans!^[26]

The last part of the name, -stān is a Persian suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region. The name "Afghanistan" is described by the 16th century Mughal Emperor Babur in his memoirs as well as by later Mughal scholar Firishta, referring to territories south of Kabul that were inhabited by Pashtuns (called "Afghans" by them).^[27] Until the 19th century the name Afghanistan was used for the traditional Pashtun territory, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Indus River, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone.^[28] In 1857, in his review of J.W. Kaye's The Afghan War, Friedrich Engels describes "Afghanistan" as:

[...] an extensive country of Asia [...] between Persia and the Indies, and in the other direction between the Hindu Kush and the Indian Ocean. It formerly included the Persian provinces of Khorassan and Kohistan, together with Herat, Beluchistan, Cashmere, and Sinde, and a considerable part of the Punjab [...] Its principal cities are Kabul, the capital, Ghuznee, Peshawer, and Kandahar.^[29]

Other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the Kingdom of Balkh in the early 18th centuries.^[30] With the expansion and centralization of the country, Afghan authorities adopted the name "Afghanistan" to the entire kingdom, after its English translation had already appeared in various treaties between the British Raj and Qajarid Persia, referring to the lands subject to the Pashtun Barakzai dynasty of Kabul.^[31] It became the official internationally recognized name in 1919 after the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed to regain full independence over its foreign policy from the British,^[32] and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution.^[33]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Afghanistan

Topography

A landlocked and mountainous country, with plains in the north and southwest, Afghanistan is variously described as being located within South Asia,[34][35] Central Asia[36][37] and sometimes Western Asia (or the Middle East).[38] It lies between latitudes 29° and 39° N, and longitudes 60° and 75° E. Afghanistan's highest point is Nowshak, at 7,485 m (24,557 ft) above sea level. The climate varies by region and tends to change quite rapidly. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[39]

The nation has a continental climate with very harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast (around Nuristan) and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below −15 °C (5.0 °F), and hot summers in the low-lying areas of Sistan Basin of the southwest, the Jalalabad basin of the east, and the Turkistan plains along the Amu River of the north, where temperatures average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July. The country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of Hindu Kush mountain areas. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4,000 people killed by the May 31, 1998, earthquake.

At 249,984 sq mi (647,456 km2), Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country (after Burma). It shares borders with Pakistan in the East, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far east. The country does not face any water shortage because it receives huge amounts of snow during winter. Once that melts, the water runs into rivers, lakes, and streams, but most of its national water flows to neighboring states. The state needs around $2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly used.[40]
The nation's natural resources include gold, silver, copper, zinc, and iron ore in the Southeast; precious and semi-precious stones (such as lapis, emerald, and azure) in the Northeast; and potentially significant petroleum and natural gas reserves in the North. The country also has uranium, coal, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, and salt.[41][42][43][44] It was revealed in 2010 that the country has about $1–3 trillion in untapped mineral deposits.
 
 

Newyork City........Geography

New York City is located in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston. The location at the mouth of the Hudson River, which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading city. Much of New York is built on the three islands of Manhattan, Staten Island, and Long Island, making land scarce and encouraging a high population density.

Satellite image showing the core of the New York metropolitan area. Over 10 million people live in the imaged area. Note that the picture does not include all of the area of New York City, missing parts of Staten Island and Queens, but does include populous communities in nearby New Jersey.

The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary.[39]  The Hudson separates the city from New Jersey. The East River – a tidal strait – flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River, another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers, separates Manhattan from the Bronx.

The city's land has been altered substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times. Reclamation is most prominent in Lower Manhattan, with developments such as Battery Park City in the 1970s and 1980s.[40] Some of the natural variations in topography have been evened out, especially in Manhattan.[41]

The city's land area is estimated at 304.8 square miles (789 km2).[3][4] Its total area is 468.9 square miles (1,214 km2). 164.1 square miles (425 km2) of this are water and 304.8 square miles (789 km2) is land. The highest point in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island, which, at 409.8 feet (124.9 m) above sea level, is the highest point on the Eastern Seaboard south of Maine.[42] The summit of the ridge is mostly covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt.[43]

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, New York City has a humid subtropical climate and enjoys an average of 234 days with at least some sunshine annually, for an average of 2680 hours of sunshine per year.^[44] When using the 0°C (American scientist standard) isotherm as criterion, it is the northernmost major city in North America that features a humid subtropical climate.
Summers are typically hot and humid with average high temperatures of 79 °F (26.1 °C) to 84 °F (28.9 °C) and lows of 63 °F (17.2 °C) to 69 °F (20.6 °C), however temperatures exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on average of 16 – 19 days each summer and can exceed 100 °F (38 °C) every 4–6 years.^[45] Winters are cold, and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimizes the effect of the Atlantic Ocean. Yet, the Atlantic Ocean keeps the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities located at similar latitudes such as Chicago, Pittsburgh and Cincinnati. The average temperature in January, New York City's coldest month, is 32.1 °F (0.1 °C). However temperatures in winter could for few days be as low as 10 °F (−12 °C) and as high as the 50s °F (10-15 °C).^[46] Spring and autumn are unpredictable, and can range from chilly to warm, although they are usually pleasantly mild with low humidity.
New York City receives 49.7 inches (1,260 mm) of precipitation annually, which is fairly spread throughout the year. Average winter snowfall is about 28.1 inches (71 cm), but this usually varies considerably from year to year, and snow cover usually remains little.^[44] Hurricanes and tropical storms are rare in the New York area, but are not unheard of and always have the potential to strike the area.

Climate data for New York (Central Park)

[hide]Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °F (°C)	72 (22)	75 (24)	86 (30)	96 (36)	99 (37)	101 (38)	106 (41)	104 (40)	102 (39)	94 (34)	84 (29)	75 (24)	106 (41)
Average high °F (°C)	38.0 (3.3)	41.0 (5)	49.8 (9.9)	60.7 (15.9)	70.9 (21.6)	79.0 (26.1)	84.2 (29)	82.4 (28)	74.7 (23.7)	63.5 (17.5)	53.1 (11.7)	42.9 (6.1)	61.7 (16.5)
Daily mean °F (°C)	32.1 (0.1)	34.6 (1.4)	42.5 (5.8)	52.5 (11.4)	62.6 (17)	71.2 (21.8)	76.5 (24.7)	75.1 (23.9)	67.5 (19.7)	56.6 (13.7)	47.1 (8.4)	37.3 (2.9)	54.6 (12.6)
Average low °F (°C)	26.2 (-3.2)	28.1 (-2.2)	35.1 (1.7)	44.2 (6.8)	54.2 (12.3)	63.3 (17.4)	68.8 (20.4)	67.7 (19.8)	60.3 (15.7)	49.6 (9.8)	41.0 (5)	31.6 (-0.2)	47.5 (8.6)
Record low °F (°C)	-6 (-21)	-15 (-26)	3 (-16)	12 (-11)	28 (-2)	44 (7)	52 (11)	50 (10)	39 (4)	28 (-2)	7 (-14)	-13 (-25)	-15 (-26)
Precipitation inches (mm)	4.13 (104.9)	3.15 (80)	4.37 (111)	4.28 (108.7)	4.69 (119.1)	3.84 (97.5)	4.62 (117.3)	4.22 (107.2)	4.23 (107.4)	3.85 (97.8)	4.36 (110.7)	3.95 (100.3)	49.69 (1,262.1)
Snowfall inches (cm)	7.5 (19.1)	8.4 (21.3)	5.0 (12.7)	0.9 (2.3)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0.9 (2.3)	5.4 (13.7)	28.1 (71.4)
Avg. snowy days	4.1	2.9	1.6	0.2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0.3	1.8	10.9
Avg. precipitation days	10.3	9.4	10.7	11.1	11.4	10.8	10.2	9.5	9.1	8.3	9.3	10.6	120.7
Source: NOAA [47] Weatherbase.com [48] August 2009

Environment

Mass transit use in New York City is the highest in the United States, and gasoline consumption in the city is the same rate as the national average in the 1920s.[49]  New York City's high level of mass transit use saved 1.8 billion gallons of oil in 2006; New York saves half of all the oil saved by transit nationwide.[50]  The city's population density, low automobile use and high transit utility make it among the most energy efficient cities in the United States.[51]  New York City's greenhouse gas emissions are 7.1 metric tons per person compared with the national average of 24.5.[52]  New Yorkers are collectively responsible for one percent of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions[52]  though they comprise 2.7% of the nation's population. The average New Yorker consumes less than half the electricity used by a resident of San Francisco and nearly one-quarter the electricity consumed by a resident of Dallas.[53]

In recent years, the city has focused on reducing its environmental impact. Large amounts of concentrated pollution in New York City led to a high incidence of asthma and other respiratory conditions among the city's residents.[54] The city government is required to purchase only the most energy-efficient equipment for use in city offices and public housing.[55] New York has the largest clean air diesel-hybrid and compressed natural gas bus fleet in the country, and some of the first hybrid taxis.[56] The city government was a petitioner in the landmark Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency Supreme Court case forcing the EPA to regulate greenhouse gases as pollutants. The city is also a leader in the construction of energy-efficient green office buildings, including the Hearst Tower among others.[57]

New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected Catskill Mountains watershed.[58] As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed natural water filtration system, New York is one of only four major cities in the United States with drinking water pure enough not to require purification by water treatment plants.[59]

Washington: Geography

A land of contrasts: a farm and barren hills near Riverside.

Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Its northern border lies mostly along the 49th parallel, and then via marine boundaries through the Strait of Georgia, Haro Strait and Strait of Juan de Fuca, with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north. Washington borders Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming most of the boundary and the 46th parallel forming the eastern part of the southern boundary. To the east Washington borders Idaho, bounded mostly by the meridian running north from the confluence of the Snake River and Clearwater River (about 116°57' west), except for the southernmost section where the border follows the Snake River. To the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean.^[4] Washington was a Union territory during the American Civil War, although it never actually participated in the war.

Washington is part of a region known as the Pacific Northwest, a term which always includes at least Washington and Oregon and may or may not include Idaho, western Montana, northern California, and part or all of British Columbia, Alaska, and the Yukon Territory, depending on the speaker or writer's intent.

Digitally colored elevation map of Washington.

The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state. Western Washington, west of the Cascades, has a mostly marine west coast climate with relatively mild temperatures, wet winters, and dry summers. Western Washington also supports dense forests of conifers and areas of temperate rain forest.^[5] In contrast, Eastern Washington, east of the Cascades, has a relatively dry climate with large areas of semiarid steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rainshadow of the Cascades; the Hanford reservation receives an average annual precipitation of between six and seven inches (178 mm). Farther east, the climate becomes less arid. The Palouse region of southeast Washington was grassland that has been mostly converted into farmland. Other parts of eastern Washington are forested and mountainous.

The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains. From the north to the south these volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount St. Helens is currently the only Washington volcano that is actively erupting; however, all of them are considered active volcanoes.

Washington's position on the Pacific Ocean and the harbors of Puget Sound give the state a leading role in maritime trade with Alaska, Canada, and the Pacific Rim. Puget Sound's many islands are served by the largest ferry fleet in the United States.

Washington is a land of contrasts. The deep forests of the Olympic Peninsula, such as the Hoh Rain Forest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States, but the semi-desert east of the Cascade Range has few trees. Mount Rainier, the highest mountain in the state,^[3] is covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the lower 48 states.^[6]

Federal land and reservations

National parks and monuments

There are three National Parks and two National Monuments in Washington:

• Mount Rainier National Park
• North Cascades National Park
• Olympic National Park
• Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument
• Hanford Reach National Monument

National forests

Nine national forests are located (at least partly) in Washington:

• Colville National Forest
• Gifford Pinchot National Forest
• Idaho Panhandle National Forest
• Kaniksu National Forest
• Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest
• Okanogan National Forest
• Olympic National Forest
• Umatilla National Forest
• Wenatchee National Forest

Federally protected wildernesses

31 wildernesses are located (at least partly) in Washington, including:

• Alpine Lakes Wilderness
• Glacier Peak Wilderness
• Goat Rocks Wilderness
• Henry M. Jackson Wilderness
• Juniper Dunes Wilderness
• Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness
• Mount Baker Wilderness
• Norse Peak Wilderness
• Olympic Wilderness
• Pasayten Wilderness
• Wild Sky Wilderness

National wildlife refuges

23 National Wildlife Refuges are located (at least partly) in Washington including:

• Dungeness National Wildlife Refuge
• Little Pend Oreille National Wildlife Refuge
• Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge
• Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge
• Saddle Mountain National Wildlife Refuge
• San Juan Islands National Wildlife Refuge
• Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge
• Willapa National Wildlife Refuge

Other federally protected lands

Other protected lands of note include:

• Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area
• Ebey's Landing National Historical Reserve
• Fort Vancouver National Historic Site
• Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park
• Lake Chelan National Recreation Area
• Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area
• Ross Lake National Recreation Area
• San Juan Island National Historical Park
• Whitman Mission National Historic Site
• 17 National Natural Landmarks

Military and related reservations

There are several large military-related reservations, including:

• JBLM Joint Base Lewis-McChord
• Fairchild Air Force Base
• Naval Base Kitsap
• Hanford Site
• Yakima Training Center
• Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and Intermediate Maintenance Facility (Bremerton)
• Naval Air Station Whidbey Island
• Naval Station Everett

Climate

Dryland farming caused a large dust storm in arid parts of eastern Washington on October 4, 2009. Courtsey: NASA/GSFC, MODIS Rapid Response^[7]

Washington's climate varies greatly from west to east. An oceanic climate (also called "west coast marine climate") predominates in western Washington, and a much drier semi-arid climate prevails east of the Cascade Range. Major factors determining Washington's climate include the large semi-permanent high pressure and low pressure systems of the north Pacific Ocean, the continental air masses of North America, and the Olympic and Cascade mountains. In the spring and summer, a high pressure anticyclone system dominates the north Pacific Ocean, causing air to spiral out in a clockwise fashion. For Washington this means prevailing winds from the northwest bringing relatively cool air and a predictably dry season. In the autumn and winter, a low pressure cyclone system takes over in the north Pacific Ocean, with air spiraling inward in a counter-clockwise fashion. This causes Washington's prevailing winds to come from the southwest, bringing relatively warm and moist air masses and a predictably wet season. The term Pineapple Express is used to describe the extreme form of this wet season pattern.^[8]

Despite western Washington having a marine climate similar to those of many coastal cities of Europe, there are exceptions such as the "Big Snow" events of 1880, 1881, 1893 and 1916 and the "deep freeze" winters of 1883–84, 1915–16, 1949–50 and 1955–56, among others. During these events western Washington experienced up to 6 feet (1.8 m) of snow, sub-zero (−18°C) temperatures, three months with snow on the ground, and lakes and rivers frozen over for weeks.^[9] Seattle's lowest officially recorded temperature is 0 °F (−18 °C) set on January 31, 1950, but areas a short distance away from Seattle have recorded lows as cold as −20 °F (−28.9 °C).^{[citation needed]}

In 2006, the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington published The Impacts of Climate change in Washington’s Economy, a preliminary assessment on the risks and opportunities presented given the possibility of a rise in global temperatures and their effects on Washington state.^[10]

Rain shadow effects

Washington experiences extensive variation in rainfall

The coastal mountains and Cascades compound this climatic pattern by causing orographic lift of the air masses blown inland from the Pacific Ocean, resulting in the windward side of the mountains receiving high levels of precipitation and the leeward side receiving low levels. This occurs most dramatically around the Olympic Mountains and the Cascade Range. In both cases the windward slopes facing southwest receive high precipitation and mild, cool temperatures. While the Puget Sound lowlands are known for clouds and rain in the winter, the western slopes of the Cascades receive larger amounts of precipitation, often falling as snow at higher elevations. (Mount Baker, near the state's northern border, is one of the snowiest places in the world: in 1999, it set the world record for snowfall in a single season: 1,140 inches, or 95 foot (29 m).^[11] East of the Cascades, a large region experiences strong rain shadow effects. Semi-arid conditions occur in much of eastern Washington with the strongest rain shadow effects at the relatively low elevations of the central Columbia Plateau—especially the region just east of the Columbia River from about the Snake River to the Okanagan Highland. Thus instead of rain forests much of eastern Washington is covered with grassland and shrub-steppe.

Temperatures

The average annual temperature ranges from 51 °F (11 °C) on the Pacific coast to 40 °F (4 °C) in the northeast. The lowest recorded temperature in the state was −48 °F (−44.4 °C) in Winthrop and Mazama. The highest recorded temperature in the state was 118 °F (48 °C) at Ice Harbor Dam. Both records were set east of the Cascades. Western Washington is known for its mild climate, considerable fog, frequent cloud cover and long-lasting drizzles in the winter, and sunny and dry summers. The western region occasionally experiences extreme climate. Arctic cold fronts in the winter and heat waves in the summer are not uncommon. In the Western region, temperatures have reached as high as 112 °F (44 °C) in Marietta^[12] and as low as −20 °F (−28.9 °C) in Longview.^[13] The western side of the Olympic Peninsula receives as much as 160 inches (4,100 mm) of precipitation annually, making it the wettest area of the 48 conterminous states. Weeks or even months may pass without a clear day. The western slopes of the Cascade Range receive some of the heaviest annual snowfall (in some places more than 200 inches (510 cm)) in the country. In the rain shadow area east of the Cascades, the annual precipitation is only 6 inches (150 mm). Precipitation then increases again eastward toward the Rocky Mountains.

Geography, time and climate

[edit] Location

Satellite image of Moscow and suburbia

Moscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows for just over 500 km through the East European Plain in central Russia. 49 bridges span the river and its canals within the city's limits. Elevation of Moscow in VVC, where situated head Moscow weather station, is 156 m (512 ft). The highest point is Teplostanskaya highland at 255 m (837 ft).^[19] The width of Moscow city (not limiting MKAD) from west to east is 39.7 km (24.7 mi), and the length from north to south is 51.7 km (32.1 mi).

Moscow's road system is centered roughly around the Kremlin at the heart of the city. From there, roads generally radiate outwards to intersect with a sequence of circular roads ("rings").

The first and innermost major ring, Bulvarnoye Koltso (Boulevard Ring), was built at the former location of the sixteenth century city wall around that used to be called Bely Gorod (White Town).^[13] The Bulvarnoye Koltso is technically not a ring; it does not form a complete circle, but instead a horseshoe-like arc that goes from the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour to the Yauza River. In addition, the Boulevard Ring changes street names numerous times throughout its journey across the city.

The second primary ring, located outside the bell end Boulevard Ring, is the Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring). Like the Boulevard Ring, the Garden Ring follows the path of a sixteenth century wall that used to encompass part of the city.^[13] The third ring, the Third Transport Ring, was completed in 2003 as a high-speed freeway.

The Fourth Transport Ring, another freeway, is under construction to further reduce traffic congestion. The outermost ring within Moscow is the Moscow Automobile Ring Road (often called the MKAD from the Russian Московская Кольцевая Автомобильная Дорога), which forms the approximate boundary of the city. Outside the city, some of the roads encompassing the city continue to follow this circular pattern seen inside city limits.

[edit] Time

Main article: Moscow Time

Time zones of Europe

The city recognizes a unique time schedule which is used for Moscow and most of western Russia, including Saint Petersburg. During winter the areas operate in what is referred to as Moscow Standard Time (MSK, МСК) which is 3 hours ahead of UTC, or UTC+3. During the summer, Moscow Time shifts forward an additional hour ahead of Moscow Standard Time to become Moscow Summer Time (MSD), making it UTC+4.

Moscow Time (UTC+3), Moscow Summer Time (UTC+4)

[edit] Climate

Main article: Climate of Moscow

Moscow has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm, somewhat humid summers and long, cold winters. Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July and August are around 23 °C (73 °F), but during heat waves (which can occur between May and September), daytime high temperatures often top 30 °C (86 °F) - sometimes for a week or a two at a time. In the winter, temperatures normally drop to approximately −10 °C (14.0 °F), though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 °C (32 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded was 36.8 °C (98.2 °F)^[20] in August 1920, and the lowest ever recorded was −42.2 °C (−44 °F) in January 1940. Snow cover (present for 3–5 months a year) typically begins at the end of November and melts by mid-March.

Monthly rainfall totals vary minimally throughout the year, although the precipitation levels tend to be higher during the summer than during the winter. Due to the significant variation in temperature between the winter and summer months as well as the limited fluctuation in precipitation levels during the summer, Moscow is considered to be within a continental climate zone.

The average annual temperature in Moscow is 5.4 °C (41.7 °F), but for the last two years (2007–2008) the annual temperature has averaged above 7 °C (45 °F)^[21]. In contrast, during the first half of the 20th century, Moscow experienced light frost during the late summer months.^[21]

On average Moscow has 1731 hours of sunshine per year, varying between a low of 8% in December to 52% in May–August.^[22] In 2004–2008, the average was between 1800 and 2000 hours^[23]

[hide]Weather data for Moscow (1971–2000), records (1879–the present)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	8.6 (47)	8.3 (47)	17.5 (64)	28.0 (82)	33.2 (92)	34.7 (94)	36.5 (98)	36.8 (98)	32.3 (90)	24.0 (75)	12.6 (55)	9.6 (49)	36.8 (98)
Average high °C (°F)	-4.9 (23)	-3.5 (26)	2.2 (36)	10.8 (51)	18.2 (65)	22.1 (72)	23.2 (74)	21.3 (70)	15.1 (59)	8.1 (47)	0.6 (33)	-3.1 (26)	9.2 (49)
Daily mean °C (°F)	-7.5 (19)	-6.7 (20)	-1.4 (29)	6.3 (43)	12.8 (55)	17.1 (63)	18.4 (65)	16.4 (62)	10.8 (51)	5.0 (41)	-1.6 (29)	-5.4 (22)	5.4 (42)
Average low °C (°F)	-10.3 (13)	-9.9 (14)	-4.7 (24)	2.1 (36)	7.4 (45)	12.0 (54)	13.8 (57)	12.0 (54)	7.0 (45)	2.0 (36)	-3.7 (25)	-7.9 (18)	1.7 (35)
Record low °C (°F)	-42.2 (-44)	-38.2 (-37)	-32.4 (-26)	-21.0 (-6)	-7.5 (19)	-2.3 (28)	1.3 (34)	-1.2 (30)	-8.5 (17)	-16.1 (3)	-32.8 (-27)	-38.8 (-38)	-42.2 (-44)
Precipitation mm (inches)	46 (1.81)	36 (1.42)	33 (1.3)	38 (1.5)	52 (2.05)	84 (3.31)	90 (3.54)	80 (3.15)	67 (2.64)	66 (2.6)	60 (2.36)	53 (2.09)	705 (27.76)
Sunshine hours	33	72	128	170	265	279	271	238	147	78	32	18	1,731
% Humidity	83	80	74	67	64	70	74	77	81	81	84	85	77
Source: [22][24][25]

Mumbai - Geography

Mumbai is located at 18°58′30″N 72°49′33″E / 18.9750°N 72.8258°E / 18.9750; 72.8258 in the Indian state of Maharashtra.^[94] Mumbai consists of two distinct regions: Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban District, which form two separate districts of Maharashtra.^[95] The city region is also commonly referred to as the Island City.^[96] Mumbai, as an urban entity, spans a total area of 603.4 km² (233 sq mi),^[97] while Greater Mumbai, the area under the administration of Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), spans a total area of 437.71 km² (169 sq mi), with the Island City spanning 67.79 km² (26 sq mi) and the suburban district spanning 370 km² (143 sq mi).^[98]

Greater Mumbai accounts for most of Mumbai's territory, excluding some regions such as Defence lands, Mumbai Port Trust lands, and the Borivali National Park area, which are out of the jurisdiction of the BMC. The Mumbai metropolitan region consists of the full districts of Mumbai City and Mumbai suburbs, city of Navi Mumbai, and also part of the districts of Thane and Raigad.^[99] It covers an area of about 4,355 km² (1,681 sq mi).^[100]

Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India, in the coastal region known as the Konkan. It sits on Salsette Island, partially shared with the Thane district.^[101] Mumbai is surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west.^[102] Many parts of the city lie just above sea level, with elevations ranging from 10 m (33 ft) to 15 m (49 ft);^[103] the city has an average elevation of 14 m (46 ft).^[104] Northern Mumbai (Salsette) is hilly,^[105] and the highest point in the city is 450 m (1,476 ft) at Salsette in the Powai-Kanheri ranges.^[106] Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Borivili National Park) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district, and partly in the Thane district, and it extends over an area of 103.09 km² (39.80 sq mi).^[107]

Apart from the Bhatsa Dam, there are six major lakes that supply water to the city: Vihar, Lower Vaitarna, Upper Vaitarna, Tulsi, Tansa and Powai.^[108] Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park, within the city's limits.^[109] The supply from Powai lake, also within the city limits, is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes.^[110] Three small rivers, the Dahisar River, Poinsar (or Poisar) and Ohiwara (or Oshiwara) originate within the park, while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes.^[111] The coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays, stretching from Thane creek on the eastern to Madh Marve on the western front.^[112] The eastern coast of Salsette Island is covered with large mangrove swamps, rich in biodiversity, while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky.^[113]

Soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea. In the suburbs, the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy.^[114] The underlying rock of the region is composed of black Deccan basalt flows, and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late Cretaceous and early Eocene eras.^[115] Mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of 23 fault lines in the vicinity.^[116] The area is classified as a Seismic Zone III region,^[117][118] which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected.